Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 26

Ethics - Essay Example This is true because human beings tend to learn from observation during childhood; from situations during adolescence; and from experiences during adulthood and later part of their lives. All these aspects contribute significantly towards building one’s character, which shapes one’s virtues and moralities. It may be argued that virtues of a person cannot be stable throughout his/her life. The way situations, observation and experience lead to acquisition of certain virtues; sometimes, virtues so acquired can change and make the person selfish, greedy, and insecure. This perspective is derived from Hutcheson’s non-rationalist view or ideology that envisages virtue as the ultimate end for people seen to be virtuous; however, this virtue or ultimate end itself is something that virtuous individual seeks for his/her own sake (Gill, 158). In other words, the virtuous deed may be seen as a means to satisfy the virtuous person’s desire to pursue his/her own ultimate end such as self satisfaction, others goodwill, appreciation etc. Such human nature is also a result of one’s experiences with life, the need for attention, love, affection etc. It is very difficult to confirm that virtuous people will not have any vices; however, the intentions of virtuous people emerge during specific situations. Virtuous people think and act in a manner that ultimately results in good. Virtues can be inculcated in people’s character during early childhood and adolescence. This can be achieved by building character that assimilates goodness, kindness, honesty, and integrity. A few practices to build virtues and character include rewarding and appreciating children for good work, good behavior, honesty and truth, and leading by example. These teachings should ideally begin at home, by parents, siblings, other family members and friends. Similar virtues taught at school will reinforce their character and show a direction towards right living. As children grow,

HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 7

HRM - Essay Example What’s more, the productive handling of conflicts provides the chance for all the parties to understand the diverse nature of people working within a specific environment (Pardey, 2007). This enables them to improve their methods of working and build a solid team that reflects the mission and vision of the organization. As inevitable as the conflicts between the employees are, organizations must strive to implement a sustainable conflict resolution program. The dominance of conflict often disrupts the departmental productivity, increases the rate at which good employees quit the organization, and reduces the morale of the company. Therefore, effective resolution of the conflicts within the workplace presents a chance for the organization to capitalize on the diversity of the employees and attain a comprehensive employee retention program. The first step towards logical resolution of workplace conflicts as Mrs. R.O states, involves the identification of the cause of the conflicts. The general distinctions of the conflicts at the workplace include the constructive and destructive conflicts. The constructive conflicts constitute disputes that have more benefits over costs. Such conflicts often translate into productivity to benefit the parties that are involved in the conflict. The constructive conflicts enable the team members to come together under the basic benefits from the conflict and strengthen their relationship. On the other hand, destructive conflicts present an opposite of the constructive conflicts. Such conflicts offer more harm and destruction to the organization and often bring no growth to the company. The major contributor to this conflict is unacceptable actions by two or more participants who perform actions that elicit resentment amongst the larger workforce. The continued actions by these parties

The Ten Commandments Essay Example for Free

The Ten Commandments Essay The Ten Commandments, sometimes known as the Decalogue, a literal translation of the Greek ‘Ten Words’, are found in the book of Exodus chapter 20 v 2 v17 and this is one of the most well known passages in the scriptures. In describing the events of that day the writer of Deuteronomy ( Deuteronomy 4 v 13) refers to them in Hebrew as ‘The Ten Words’ and in Exodus 19 v 5 they are named by God as ‘My Covenant’. Although part of the Jewish scriptures these verses are considered to be important by Christians too and they are often to be found inscribed in both synagogues and churches. The rabbis identified 600 different laws based upon these precepts, yet they can be summarised as in a story of Rabbi Hillel the Elder. A student declared that he would become a disciple of the rabbi if he could recite the whole of the Jewish Law while standing on one leg. Hillel while doing as he asked and standing on only one leg stated ‘What is hateful to you, do not do to your friend. This is the entire Torah; the rest is interpretation’. To this can be added the Shema, Deuteronomy 6 v 4, Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One Two short passages, yet they really do summarize both the Decalogue and indeed the whole law. The context is Mount Sinai three months into the journey of the Hebrews who have left Egypt and are on their way to the Promised Land. Although the scriptures, in particular the book of Leviticus, contain many more rules, some in minute detail, these ten laws are to form the basis of the new society in the Promised Land. The chapter begins ‘And God spoke all these words,’ ( Exodus 20 v 1). This is what gives them their power They are set out in a way that is relatively easy to remember and are in the form of a covenant God’s part and their part in a voluntary agreement. Yahweh announces to them , through Moses, his chosen agent that, having freed them from slavery by His power, as explained in chapter 19 ‘You yourselves have seen what I did to Egypt’ Chapter 19 v 4. In verse 5 and 6 He says that He will now make them will now a holy people and a nation of priests. The people agree to this , 19 v 8 ‘We will do everyhting the Lord has said’, and in v 14 we are told tha t they sanctified themselves in preparation. The Jewish Encyclopedia, in a passage designated as Israel’s Call, then describes how God, through Moses and with the accompanyment of thunder, lightning, smoke and the noise of trumpets, reveals himself by his voice and there pronounces ‘the ten fundamental commands of religion and morals’. The decalogue can be easily broken into two sections. The first part, numbers 1-4, is concerned with the relationship between God and his people ‘You shall have no other gods but me’. The second part is concerned society and with the relationships of individuals with each other, first within the family’ honour your father and mother’ and also with the wider world. ’ ( numbers 5 -10 ) and are famously summed up by Jesus in the New Testament, in Luke 10 v 27 ‘ Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind, and love your neighbour as yourself. ’although he was not the only one to make such summaries and in Leviticus they are also, in part , summarized,’Do not seek revenge, nor bear any grudge against one of your people, but you love your neighbor as yourself: I am the Lord. ’ Leviticus 19 v 18. The first commandment, verse 3, is against mental idolatry, while the second, verses 4 and 5 are against the practice of idolatry. The thing these have in common is that they forbid a great attachment to the things of earth, but an attachment to the one true God. The words are designed to show man the way to true contentment in a relationship with God rather than being over concerned with possessions, whether obvious false gods or not. It must be remembered that the group had only recently left Egypt , a country where there were gods of all kinds, many in the shape of animals, but reigned over by human images in the shape of Osiris and his consort Isis. They would have been used to seeing worship of these false gods and may even have been involved in some cases. The words in heaven , on earth and under the earth and in the waters could refer to bird gods, mammals, snakes and crocodiles or fish, all these being included in the complex Egyptian pantheon. In verse 5 God refers to himself as ‘jealous’. Clarke comments that He is thus expressing His immense love for his creation and the image is of a husband who wants to be sure of the fidelity of his partner. The third command is against taking the name of God in vain. In verse 8 and 9 there are two aspects – the keeping of the Sabbath and an injunction to work on the other 6 days and are accompanied by the example of God himself in creation. So these first commands are to do with reverence and man’s religious duty in response to who God is and what he has done, and the second group with his moral obligations towards his fellow men for the next command is one concerned with family relationships and the rest with an ordered society – do not murder, commit adultery, steal, lie or be covetous or greedy. Committing these sins is also a sin against God, because to do so would imply that what God has provided already is not good enough. Hebrew has a relatively small vocabulary and words often stand for more than one thing depending upon the context. The Hebrew word translated steal is of interest because not only does it also include the idea of being deceitful, it is also the word used for kidnapping. The following chapters of Exodus go into detail as to how these laws will work in practice as in the rules about the making of an altar in Exodus 20 v 23 onwards and the care of servants in chapter 21. Despite all these injunctions and their ready accession to what God wanted and promised however it is only a short time afterwards that the Israelites are appealing to Aaron ‘Up, and make us gods, which shall go before us. ’ And then of course ( Exodus 32) he made the golden calf despite the recent injunction in Exodus 20 v 4 ‘You shall not make for yourself an idol in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. ’ Some words and phrases are repeated or almost so ‘You shall’ and ‘You shall not’, but this is not consistent throughout and there seems to be an over emphasis on the negative, rather than the positive, whereas the New Testament summaries are in a positive attitude. Some commentators such as Adam Clarke have noted that the language used means that each person is addressed as an individual with individual responsibilities to obey, rather than the group being addressed as a whole with corporate responsibility. The Decalogue needs to be read, and obeyed, in the context of the whole scriptural revelation of God’s desire for a relationship with his people as is made plain by a wider reading as is seen for instance in Genesis 17 where God appears to Abraham and makes a covenant with him and in passages such as Jeremiah 30 v 10 where Jacob is described as the servant of God whom he will save and in Malachi 1 v 1 where God tells of his love for man. References Bible, New International Version, Hodder and Stoughton, Toronto, 1984 Clarke, A. , Commentary, Exodus 20, available from http://www. godrules. net/library/clarke/clarkeexo20. htm accessed 23rd October 2008 Introduction to Exodus, Jewish Encyclopaedia, available from http://bible. tmtm. com/wiki/Intoduction_to_Exodus_%28Jewish_Encyclopedia%29 accessed 22nd October 2008 Hillel the Elder, available from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Rabbi_Hillel accessed 23rd October 2008

Effect Of Pharmacist and Nurse on Improving Blood Pressure

Effect Of Pharmacist and Nurse on Improving Blood Pressure Afzal Hussain Problem and Purpose In this paper, I will be critically analyzing the article â€Å"A Randomized Trial of the Effect  Of Community Pharmacist and Nurse Care on Improving Blood Pressure Management  in Patients With Diabetes Mellitus- Study of Cardiovascular Risk Intervention by Pharmacists–Hypertension (SCRIP-HTN) by Donna L. Maclean ; Finlay A. McAlister; Jeffery A. Johnson, Kathryn M. King; Mark J. Makowsky ; Charlotte A. Jones and Ross T. Tsuyuki. This article outlines a quantitative experimental design involving two sample groups (experimental and Control). According to Sullivan-Bolyai, Bova, Singh (2013), experimental designs are particularly suitable for testing cause and effect relationships because they help eliminate potential alternative explanation (threats to validity) for the findings (p. 217). The authors articulate their recognition of the fact that interventions are key markers to identify and observe blood pressure (BP) control in diabetic patients. The authors also recognize the fact that there is a need for a new model of care to improve BP control, particularly with significant challenges in accessing primary care physicians attributing to labor shortages in the health scare system. In addition, the authors used manipulation by introducing the intervention, then by comparing the standard and usual care among the control group and experimental groups. This resulted in the manipulation variable being the difference of care among patients with blood pressure and diabetes. One intervention delivered to the group based on the manipulated variable of difference of care is evident through the interventions made by the pharmacist-nurse teams at various pharmacy sites, which included cardiovascular risk reduction counselling, education brochure on hypertension, lifestyle strategies, effect of diabetes on high BP, and referral to the patient’s primary care physician for further BP and cardiovascular assessment (McLean, McAlister , Johnson, King, Makowsky, Jones, and Tsuyuki, 2008, p. 2356). The control group received the standard and usual treatment compared to the experimental intervention group. Furthermore, blood pressure wallet card, educational pamphlet on diabetes and physician care were received by the control group. (McLean et al., 2008, p. 2355).The authors used randomization to categorize the research participants into two groups- experimental intervention and control which is set to receive the standard treatment of care. Mclean et al (2008) states, â€Å" Randomization was at the level of the patient ( stratified by pharmacy and using a variable block design), it was performed centrally to preserve allocation concealment using a computer generated sequence over a secure internet service at the Epidemiology Coordinating and Research (EPICORE) centre,(p. 2356). The authors propose a practical necessity for this research problem to be explored and be further researched. The purpose of the research was to explore whether pharmacist or nurses can professionally contribute to improving the BP control of patients with diabetes and implement preventative care measures due to ongoing lack of physicians, pharmacist and nurses, it is clear that the research is also significant. It is based on changing the attitude of health care professionals to meet current outcomes, outcomes which seem to be on par with those of the current health care system in Canada. Sample Size, Design and Collection Methods The sample for this study was appropriately assembled for a quantitative study. The study sample is easily identified when reading the article, included a description of the demographic characteristics and the size of the sample. Also included were any sampling bias, drop outs or loss of patients to follow up. In doing so, an adjustment of 85 to 110 per group were added. (McLean et al., 2008, p. 2357). Its purpose was to test the efficacy of community-based interventions through a pharmacist and nurse team approach on reduction of cardiovascular events in diabetes mellitus patients. This was achieved by measuring the BP which has been linked to comorbidities such as cardiovascular disease, and to BP measurement changes used as an indicator of health. This sampling was appropriate to the study as the sample were to represent diabetic patients. Mclean et al (2013) states, â€Å" All adult diabetic patients with BP higher than 130/80 mm Hg on 2 screening visits separated by 2 weeks wer e identified in participating pharmacies. Diabetes was identified by community pharmacists through the use of diabetes indicator medications in each pharmacy’s prescription database. (p. 2356). In this study, Mclean et al (2008) used a randomized controlled trial (RCT) in 14 community Pharmacies in Edmonton, Alberta as a method of data collection (McLean et al., 2008, p. 2355). Participants were identified and manipulated by pharmacists and nurses who were trained using a combination of an online learning program and a case-based learning session – both based on the Canadian Hypertension Education Program (CHEP) guidelines†. Also the use of a commercial BP monitor set at an average of 5 measurements of BP taken 1 minute was used to measure participants BP (McLean et al., 2008, p. 2356). Data analysis procedures were appropriate to the research study because â€Å"all analyses were conducted using a commercially available software program† (McLean et al., 2008, p. 2357). Threats to Internal and External Validity specifically the authors use of instrumentation and selection could possibly have introduced problems of internal validity in the research. This threat was discussed by ensuring that both groups (control and experimental) BP were measured with the same BP device, which has 6 readings, discard the first test and further takes an additional 5 measures . Mclean et al (2008) found that, â€Å"It is possible that the more frequent contact with the pharmacist –nurse team reduced the anxiety of patients and any â€Å"white coat effect† on their BP measurement†. (p.2359). Furthermore, the screening modules used by the researchers to collect the data were conducted by pharmacists and nurses well versed in their profession. Selection bias was another threat predisposing the sampling design to internal validity. The authors in their findings found that patients eligible for selection presented with lower BP, this can be caused by the researchers utilizing a convenience sample instead of a random sample. Also, selection bias may have been an essential part of the end results due to the fact that patients who are eager to monitor and control their BP are more likely to agree to participate in the trial, also that more than 80% of trial participants were aware that hypertension is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (McLean et al., 2008, p. 2358). The external validity of the study was weakened by the sampling design. The authors failed to take into consideration non English speaking people, whose cultural differences and beliefs could influence the study, and who may lack health literacy to read and identify medical abbreviations and symbols. Maclean et al (2008) states, â€Å"pharmacists and nurses who participated may be different from those who did not participate, an investigator vol unteer bias that may limit generalizability of the program† (McLean et al., 2008, p. 2359). Limitations of the Design One major limitation of the design identified by the authors is regarding the interventions implemented in regards to the in person contact time between patients and the pharmacist-nurse team, which can be further be evaluated by future studies on whether less intensive interventions are The researchers identified a potential limitation regarding that the intervention involved substantial in-person contact time between patients and study personnel, and that future studies will need to determine whether less intensive interventions are productive in controlling BP in diabetic patients (McLean et al., 2008, p. 2359 Generalization of Findings The research findings can be generally be applied to larger populations, the authors acknowledge the fact that their research intervention was extremely efficacious, resulting in a 24.1 mm Hg greater reduction in systolic BP (McLean et al., 2008, p. 2358) They recommend a new model of care to improve BP control. In addition, by utilizing an experimental research design in which a cause and effect relationship can be analyzed and measured, the researchers were able to provide coherent evidence and correlation that community pharmacists and nurses through a collaborative effort with primary care physicians could have a huge impact on hypertension management in patients with diabetes mellitus and BP control within the community (McLean et al., 2008, p. 2360) References LoBiondo-Wood, G., Singh, M.D., (2013). Introduction to quantitative research. In C. Cameron, M. D. Singh (Eds.), Nursing research in Canada: Methods and critical appraisal for evidence-based practice (3rd ed.) (pp. 198-215). Toronto: Elsevier Canada McLean, D. L., McAlister, F. A., Johnson, J.A., King, K.M., Makowsky, M.J., Jones, C.A., Tsuyuki, R.T. (2008). A randomized trial of the effect of community pharmacist and nurse care on improving blood pressure management in patients with diabetes mellitus. Archives of Internal Medicine, 168(21), 2355-2361 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19029501 Sullivan-Bolyai, S., Bova, C., Singh, M.D. (2013). Experimental and quasiexperimental designs. In C. Cameron, M. D. Singh (Eds.), Nursing research in Canada: Methods and critical appraisal for evidence-based practice (3rd ed.) (pp. 216-233). Toronto: Elsevier Canada

The Healing Process Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Healing Process This is a brief psychological overview of the healing process. The image of healing is best described by Gloria Vanderbilt in "A Mother's Story" when she talks of breaking the invisible unbreakable glass bubble which enclosed her that kept her always anticipating loss with echoes of all past losses. She wrote, for example (Page 3),"Some of us are born with a sense of loss there from the beginning, and it pervades us throughout our lives. Loss, as defined, as deprivation, can be interpreted as being born into a world that does not include a nurturing mother and father. We are captured in an unbreakable glass bubble, undetected by others, and are forever seeking ways to break out, for if we can, surely we will find and touch that which we are missing". This concept of healing was also described by Philip Berman in "If It Is Not Good Make It So" as changing positively from the unhappy attitude of(Page 48) "we never got the habit of happiness as others know it. It was always as if we were waiting for something better or worse to happen". Psychological theory of change suggest it is possible to heal, to break out of the glass bubble, to develop the attitude of happiness. For example, in "The Process of Change: Variations on a Theme by Virginia Satir says on Page 89 that "successful change-making turns out to involve struggle, necessitating skill, tenacity and perspective". The struggle occurs when a foreign element produces chaos until a new integration occurs which results in a new status quo. Kurt Lewin echoed this view in saying that an old attitude has to unfreeze, the person experiments, a new attitude develops and a refreezing occurs. Janis and Prochasky suggest a person starts in relative complacency, is presented with challenging information, the person evaluates the new challenge to habit or policy and reviews alternate policies to create a new policy or return to the original one, The psychological theories focus on perspective and rational thought. The significance of the therapist is in giving a new perspective and in aiding self-esteem in order to break down resistance to change. Otherwise, Satir suggests people are likely to revert to their trance lik... ... learn that laws and mores are not absolutes but open to constant revision as we are to do with our inner selves. Psychology seems to share the ideas that a person in emotional pain is stuck in a self made prison which can be escaped through unconditional positive regard and a fresh perspective. What isn't clear is how rational thought combined with 'love' enters the person's heart and soul. Bibliography Bugental James,F.T. "Lessons Clients Teach Therapists", J. of Humanistic Psychology Vol.31 No. 3 Summer 1991 Mittleman Willard "Maslow's Study of Self-Actualiztion: A Reinterpretation" Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 31 No.1, Winter 1991 Pages 114-135 Morrow Susan L. and Smith Mary Lee,"Survival Coping by Sexual Abuse Survivors", Journal of Counseling Psychology 1995 Vol 42, No.1, pages 24-33. "The Process of Change:Variations on a Theme by Virginia Satir", J. of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 34 No.3, Summer, 1994 Pages 87-110. Schoen Stephen MD "Psychotherapy as Sacred Ground", J. of Humanistic Psychology, Vol 31 No.1, Winter 1991 Pages 51-55 Vanderbilt Gloria, "A Mother's Story", Alfred A. Knopf, N. Y. 1996

Advertising Analysis Essay -- Ad Advertisement Commercial Essays

Advertising Analysis This paper will analyze an ATT commercial according to audience, purpose, context, ethics, and stance. The focus will emphasize the audience which the aid is trying to reach and how they do so. The commercial begins with Latino rap music playing in the background, as a man drives up in a 62 chevy low rider convertible. This car is the paramount of ghetto style enhancement. As he pulls up it is impossible not to notice his car’s insanely high-powered hydraulics. This car is classic and one can tell its worth by it expensive paint job alone. The driver is dressed in an aristocratic ghetto style which includes and expensive watch and better than average clothing. A goatee adds to this style of appearance. The driver asks a group of four young people if they are using the phone that one of them is leaning against. One of the shocked juveniles responds that he isn’t using the phone. The driver says,†The great thing about 1-800 call ATT is the rates don’t bounce up and down†.The driver then tries to hop out of the insanely rocking car but trips and lands on his face in the street. He dials 1-800 call ATT and shakes out his hand as the sou nd effects of a cracking whip coincides. He then says,†smooth† to himself as if to affirm his coolness. One of the young ladies by the phone flashes him a questioning look. When the line picks up he states,†Sweetie, I need a ride†. The camera pans to his car that is bouncing down the street setting off car alarms. He then pounds his chest twice and holds out his fist, a ghetto gesture, again trying to reaffirm his coolness. The makers of this commercial intended the audience to be teenagers and young adults. The values used were sex appeal (of one of the... ...y they did this was by using hyperbole to such a point so as to make something stylish appear ludicrously funny. The repeated exposures to the service throughout the commercial also aids in selling the service. The time slot and channel for this commercial was also strategically planned so as to get the maximum exposure to the intended audience. There was no attempt to hide the blatant advertising. This was clearly meant to be seen as a commercial. However, the ethics were a bit on the shady side so as to make the deal seem better than it really was. The small print of the details makes it appear as though the company is trying to hide the truth and is shown only because it is mandatory. The rhetoric of this commercial is in short stating this commercial is meant to sell a service to young people through a comedic commercial while hiding the negative ethics.

Biology Lab

Lab   #1   ? Introduction   to   the   Microscopy   & Observation   of   Prokaryotic   and   Eukaryotic Cells Introduction Many   of   the   cells   and   organisms   that   you   will   be   studying   are   at   the   lower   limits   of   visibility   of   light   microscopes;   therefore,   it   is   extremely   important   that   you   attain   critical   lighting   and   focussing. It   is   also   important   to   handle   the   microscope   competently   to   avoid   damaging   either   the   microscope   or   the   preparation   you   are   studying. Even   students   who   have   previously   used   microscopes  should  read  the  instructions  carefully. Guide  Biolabo Using a web rowser, go to   the   following   web   site: http://salinella. bio. uottawa. ca/biolabo/   (you   can   try   it   from   home). Under   Microscopy   you   will   find   links   to   pages   that   describe   both   type   of   microscopes   you   will   use   this   semester,   as   well   as   how   to   set   up   and   use   them. It   is   strongly   recommended   that   you   visit   these   pages   prior   to   attending  your  first  lab. Image  J  /  Qcapture Although   you   can   make   all   your   observations   by   watching   directly   through   the   oculars,   it   also   can   be   done   on   the   computer   screen   using   the   digital   camera   attached   to   each   microscope.For   that,   you   will   use   the   Image   J   program   together   with   a   capture   plugin called   Qcapture. Visit   the   lab   website   to   learn   how   to   use   Image   J   (link   on   the   homepage). All   observations   can   be   made   on   your  computer   screen   or   in   the   oculars. Each   method   has   its   advantages   and   drawbacks;   you   will   have   to   choose   which   one  it  more  appropriate  (or  the  one  you  prefer): Oculars Screen ? Greater  resolution ? Wider  field  of  view ? Can  share  observation  with  others ? More  comfortable  for  users ? Take  pictures  while  observing Lab1  ? Microscopy The  Compound  Microscope On   the   Guide   Biolabo   page   click   on   the   CX41   Compound   Microscope   link   then   on   Parts   and   Function. This   will   bring   up   a   labelled   line   diagram   of   your   microscope. Familiarize   yourself   with   the   various   components   shown   in   this   figure. Then,   click   on   Setup   and   Bright   field   alignment   in   order   to   know  how  to  use  and  handle  the  microscope. Now,   locate   your   compound   microscope   in   the   cupboard   below   the   sink   of   your   workstation. Place   it   on   the   counter   between   the omputer   and   the   end  of  the  counter. Be  sure  that  whenever  you  transport  the  microscope,  it   is   always   kept   upright;   the   ocular   lens   will   fall   out   if   the   scope   is   tilted   or   swung. Even   though   you   don’t   need   the   dissecting   microscope   right   now,   take   it   out  of  the  cupboard  and  install  it  beside  the  compound  microscope. Connect   one   firewire   cable   to   each   of   the   cameras   installed   on   top   of   the   microscopes. This  way,  everything  is  setup  for  further  observations  both  on   your  computer  screen  and  through  the  oculars. Parts  of  the  compound  microscopeThe   microscope   consists   of   a   system   of   lenses,   a   light   source,   and   a   geared   mechanism   for   adjusting   the   distance   between   the   lens   system   and   object   being   observed. There   are   a   number   of   important   components   and   it   is   essential   that   you   be   able   to   identify   them   and   understand   their   function   before  you  can  proceed. By  going  through  the  different  modules  in  Biolabo   and   using   the   microscope   you   will   develop   a   competency   for   bright   field   microscopy. Identify   the   following   components   using   Biolabo   (Parts   andà ‚   functions   figure)  and  your  microscope:REVOLVING  NOSEPIECE:  Supports  the  various  objectives  ? You  will  only  use   the  4x,  10x  and  40x  objectives  in  the  BIO1140  labs  (not  the  100x). STAGE:   Supports   the   specimen   being   observed. A   system   of   knobs   on   the   side   of   the   stage   allows   you   to   move   the   specimen   under   the   objective   on   the  X  and  Y  axes. Try  and  move  the  stage. COARSE   FOCUS   KNOB:   Permits   rapid   change   in   distance   between   the   specimen   and   the   objective   thereby   allowing   for   rough   focussing   –   Do   not   use  when  focusing  with  the  40x  objectiveFINE   FOCUS   KNOB:   Permits   small   changes   in   distance   between   the   specimen   and   the   obje ctive   and   thereby   allows   for   final   focussing   of   the   image. 10 Lab1  ? Microscopy OCULAR   OR   EYEPIECE:   A   magnifying   element   in   the   microscope,   usually   10X. It   is   through   the   ocular,   or   eyepiece   that   one   looks   at   the   specimen. All   our   microscopes   are   parfocal,   so   that   when   an   object   is   in   focus   with   one   objective,   the   focus   will   not   be   completely   lost   when   changing   to   the   next  objective. OBJECTIVES:  The  magnifying  element  which  is  closest  to  the  specimen.See   figure  1  to  find  out  about  the  engravings  on  the  side  of  each  objective. CONDENSER:   System   of   lenses   that   concentrates   the   light   furnished   by   the   illuminator. It  does  not  magnif y  the  object. CONDENSER   HEIGHT   ADJUSTMENT   KNOB:   Allows   one   to   focus   the   concentrated  light  onto  the  specimen. APERTURE  IRIS  DIAPHRAGM:  Used  to  reduce  glare  from  unwanted  light  by   adjusting  the  angle  of  the  cone  of  light  that  comes  from  the  condenser; Production  of  Image  by  a  Compound  Microscope The   most   important   part   of   a   microscope   is   the   objective.All   the   other   parts  of  the  instrument  are  designed  to  help  the  objective  produce  the  best   possible  image. The  best  image  is  not  the  largest;  it  is  the  clearest. There  is   no   value   to   a   high   magnification. If   the   resolution   is   poor   you   will   have   no   better  understanding  of  the  specimen. light  beam ocularà ‚  lens Magnification Numerical  aperture  (NA) Determines   the   resolving power  of  the  objective* Optical   tube   length   /   max. coverslip  thickness  in  mm prism objective  lens specimen condenser  lens Figure  1:  Objectives  engravings light  sourceFigure  2:  Image  production  in  a  compound  microscope. 11 Lab1  ? Microscopy *Resolving  power  is  the  ability  to  see  two  objects  that  are  very  close  as  two   separate  objects. The  human  eye  will  resolving  power  is  about  100 µm. Using  the  compound  microscope Always   handle   the   microscope   GENTLY! It   is   an   expensive,   delicate   and   heavy   instrument. Carry   it   with   two   hands,   one   hand   on   the   arm,   and   the   other   hand   under   the   base. If   the   ocular   or   objective   is   dir ty,   wipe   it   clean   using   ONLY   Kimwipes   or   special   lens   tissue   and   cleaning   fluid   supplied.If   you   use   anything   else   you   may   scratch   the   lens. Wipe   up   any   cleaning   fluid   immediately;   otherwise   it   will   dissolve   the   glue   which   holds   the   lens   in   place. REMEMBER,  your  demonstrator  is  here  to  help,  so†¦ ASK! 1. Make   sure   that   the   power   cord   is   plugged   into   the   back   of   your   microscope  and  into  a  power  outlet. 2. Using  the  letter  Ã¢â‚¬Å"e†Ã‚  microscope  slide  provided,  follow  steps  2  through  13   in   the   Setup   and   Bright   field   alignment   procedure   of   Biolabo. Remember,   observation  can  be  done  on  screen  or  through  the  oculars. Orientation  an d  working  distance . Starting   your   examination   with   the   4X   objective,   position   the   letter   â€Å"e†Ã‚   slide  on  the  stage. 2. Draw  what  you  see  in  the  microscope:_________________ 3. What  would  a  slide  with  the  letter  Ã¢â‚¬Å"t†Ã‚  look  like  under  the  microscope? _________________ 4. Using  the  knobs  located  on  the  side  of  the  stage  and  looking  through  the   microscope,   move   the   slide   slowly   to   the   right,   then   to   the   left. Record   your  observations. ___________________________________   5. Now,   move   the   slide   slowly   away   from   you,   then   towards   you   while   observing  through  the  microscope.Record  your  observations   ____________________________________ 6. Focus  on  the  slide  at  10X. Check  the  dist ance  between  the  objective  lens   and  your  slide  (=  the  working  distance,  see  also  the  reference  at  the  end  of   this   chapter). Now   switch   to   the   40X   objective   and   check   the   working   distance. What   happens   to   the   working   distance   as   your   magnification   increases? 12 Lab1  ? Microscopy Depth  of  field  (depth  of  focus) Lenses   have   a   depth   of   focus. It   is   the   number   of   planes   in   which   an   object   appears   to   be   in   focus.Extend   your   fist   at   arm’s   length   in   front   of   you   and   hold   your   thumb   up. Concentrate   on   your   thumb   and   notice   that   the   objects  past  your  thumb  on  the  other  side  of  the  room  are  not  clearly  seen. Similarly   withà ‚   a   microscope,   when   it   is   focussed   on   one   surface,   the   surfaces  lower  or  higher  will  be  out  of  focus. 1. Position   a   prepared   slide   with   coloured   threads   upon   the   stage. At   low   power,  4X,  focus  on  the  area  where  the  threads  cross. 2. Using  the  fine  focus  adjustment,  focus  up  and  down  slowly. 3. Repeat   using   different   objectives.What   can   you   say   about   the   depth   of   field   at   different   magnifications? Has   it   increased   or   decreased? (i. e. ,   can   you  see  more  threads  in  one  focal  plane  at  4X  or  40X? ) ____________________________________________________________ Magnification The  magnification  given  by  objectives  and  oculars  is  engraved  on  them. The   total   magnification   for   any   combination   of   objective   and   ocular   is   the   product  of  the  magnification  of  each  lens. Objective  magnification Ocular  magnification Total  Magnification Light  intensity Working  distance 4x 10x 40x High 22mm 10x 10x 100xMedium 10. 5mm 40x 10x 400x Low 0. 56mm Table1   . Comparison   magnification,   working   distance   and   brightness   at   three   different   objective  magnifications. You  also  can  calculate  the  magnification  of  your  picture  using  the  following   formula: Magnification  factor=  measured  size  of  object  =  (  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  X) Actual  size  of  object 13 Lab1  ? Microscopy Specimen   size   and   Magnification   of the  picture Before   you   start   this   exercise,   make   sure   you   have   carefully   read   the   website   section   rele vant   to   the   software   you   will   use   to   take   digital   pictures  (ImageJ/Qcapture).The   goal   of   this   section   is   to   teach   you   different   techniques   that   will   allow   you   to   determine   the   size   of   objects   you’re   observing   under   the   microscope. The   general   principle   is   fairly   simple:   2   objects   have   the   same   relative   size   (expressed   as   a   ratio)   in   the   real   world   and   under   the   microscope. actual  size  of  object  A  Ã‚  Ã‚  =  on? screen  size  of  object  A  Ã‚  ? A1  =  A2     actual  size  of  object  B  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  on? screen  size  of  object  B  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B2 The  following  exercises  are  applications   of  this  formula. Place  a  sli de  under   the   microscope.Choose   the   right   objective   and   adjust   the   focus   and   light   level. Then,  choose  a  structure  you  want  to  measure  and  take  a  picture. A? First   method:   Measuring   an   object   using   the   field   of   view  (FOV): The   simplest   way   to   determine   the   size   of   an   object   is   to   use   the   known   size  of  the  whole  field  of  view  (FOV,  the  whole  picture  from  left  to  right). 1? On   the   computer   screen   (using   a   ruler   and   without   writing   anything   of   the  screen),  measure  the  object  of  which  you  want  to  determine  the  size  (=   A2) 2? Then,  measure  the  width  of  the  whole  picture  on  the  screen  (=B2). ? Refer   to   table   2   on   page   20   to   know   the   actual   size   of   the   field   of   view   for  the  objective  you’re  using  (=B1) 4? Use  the  following  formula: Actual  size  of  the  object  (A1)  =  Actual  size  of  the  FOV  (B1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  x  Ã‚  Ã‚  on? screen  size  of  the  object  (A2) on? screen  size  of  the  FOV  (B2) Example:   On   a   snapshot   using   the   4x   objective,   an   insect   has   an   on? screen   length  of  10cm. The  whole  picture  is  20cm  wide. What  is  the  actual  size  of  the  insect? ______________________________ 14 Lab1  ? Microscopy B? Second   method:   Measuring   an   object   using   a   scale   bar  file:From   Image   J   (using   the   file   /   open   command),   open   the   file   that   contains   the   relevant   scale   bar   in   the    (T:/BIO/BIO1140):   new10X. jpg   for   the   10x   objective,  and  new40X. jpg  (for  the  4x  and  40x  objectives). Then,   using   a   ruler   measure   the   following   distances   directly   on   the   computer  screen: 1? The   on? screen   length   (or   width)   of   the   object   whose   size   you   wish   to   determine  (=A2) 2? The  width  of  the  scale  bar  on  the  screen  (=B2)   You  now  can  calculate  the  actual  size  of  the  object  using  the  formula: actual  size  of  object  =  on? creen  length  of  object  Ã‚  x  Ã‚  actual  size  of  scale  bar*        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  on? screen  length  of  scale  bar ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A1  =  A2  x  B1 B2 *The   actual   size   of   the   scale   bar   is   indicated   on   the   scale   bar   file   (ex:   on   the   new10x. jpg   file,  the  bar  represents  0. 2mm  at  10x  or  0. 02mm  at  100x)  =  B1 Example:  I  took  a  picture  of  a  small  insect  larva,  using  the  4x  objective. The   larva   length   is   60mm   on   the   screen. The   scale   bar   on   the   new40x. jpg   is   30mm  and  represents  0. 2mm. What  is  the  actual  size  of  the  larva? _________________________Do  not  put  the  compound  microscope  back  in  the  cupboard  you  will  need  it   later  this  afternoon. Points  to  remember  concerning  microscopes 1. Always   work   with   a   clean   microscope. Use   only   the   lens   paper   provided. Don't  forget  to  clean  the  slide  too! 2. Always   locate   the   specimen   under   low   power   and   work   your   way   up   to   the  high  power  objective. 3. Never   use   the   coarse   focusing   knob   when   the   high   power   lens   is   in   position. Use  only  the  fine  focus  knob. 4. Never  use  the  100x  in  1st  year  labs  (we  didn’t  teach  you  how)   5.Always   readjust   illumination   whenever   you   change   the   objective. Too   much  light  will  give  you  a  blurry  image  that  you  cannot  focus  on. 15 Lab1  ? Microscopy The  stereoscopic  microscope (dissecting  microscope) The   stereoscopic   microscope,   also   called   stereoscope   or   dissecting   microscope,   is   used   to   view   objects   that   are   too   large   or   too   thick   to   observe  under  the  comp ound  microscope. Stereo   microscopes   are   always   equipped   with   two   oculars   producing   a   stereoscopic   or   three? dimensional   image. Unlike   the   compound   microscope,  the  image  is  not  inverted.Our   stereo   microscopes   provide   magnification   in   the   range   of   6. 7X   ? 45X   using   a   zoom? type   lens   system. By   rotating   a   dial   located   on   the   right   side   of   the   stereo   microscope   head,   the   viewer   obtains   a   continuous   change   of   magnification. Our   stereo   microscopes   can   be   used   with   reflected   or   transmitted   light. Reflected   light   is   directed   unto   opaque   specimens   from   above   and   is   reflected   to   the   viewer. Transmitted   light   is   used   with   translucent   specimens   and   passes   through   the   specimen   from   beneath   the   stage   and   into  the  viewer's  eyes.Use  of  the  stereoscopic  microscope 1. On   the   Biolabo   home   page   left   click   on   Stereoscope   (Dissecting   microscope)  and  then  on  Stereoscope  setup. 2. Click  on  Step  1  and  read  it  carefully. Obtain  a  stereo  microscope  from  the   same  cupboard  as  your  compound  microscope  if  you  haven’t  yet. 3. Click  on  and  read  steps  2  through  7. 4. Place  a  coin  on  the  stage. 5. Using   the   focussing   knob   on   either   side   of   the   arm,   lower   or   raise   the   objective   until   the   coin   is   in   focus. Examine   it   in   both   reflected   and   transmitted  light.Which   is   best   for   an   opaque   specimen? Try   t he   various   magnifications   by   turning   the   zoom   knob. The   reflected   light source   is   similar   to   a   spotlight   and  its  orientation  can  be  adjusted  manually. Try  rotating  the  light  upwards   and  downwards. 6. Examine  other  materials  such  as  brine  shrimp  larvae  (Artemia)  in  a  watch   glass   using   both   reflected   and   transmitted   light. Add   1? 2   drops   of   â€Å"proto? slow†Ã‚   solution   to   slow   down   the   larvae. Estimate   the   actual   size   of   one   larva:  __________ 16 Lab1  ? Microscopy Prokaryotic  and  Eukaryotic  cellsIt   has   long   been   recognized   that   living   organisms   are   composed   of   basic   structural   and   functional   units   called   cells. Cells   can   be   divided   into   two   general   type s:   prokaryotic   and   eukaryotic,   based   on   the   presence   of   a   nucleus  and  other  membrane  bound  organelles  in  the  latter. Prokaryotic   cells   belong   to   2   big   groups:   archaea   and   eubacteria. They   are   usually   smaller   than   eukaryotic   cells   (typically   1? 5 µm). These   unicellular   organisms  may  be  small,  but  they  are  the  most  abundant  organisms  on  the   planet,   representing   about   half   the   biomass   (Biology,   Brooker   et   al. 010,   McGraw? Hill&Ryerson). They   are   devoid   of   membrane   bound   organelle   such   as   the   nucleus,   mitochondria   or   chloroplasts. Their   genetic   material   is   usually   composed   of   one   circular   chromosome   plus   other   extra   chromosomal  elements  called  plasmids. Euka ryotic   cells   are   usually   much   larger. They   possess   a   membrane   bound   nucleus,   their   organelles   are   more   complex   and   numerous,   and   their   genome   is   larger   than   prokaryotes. Eukaryotic   organisms   can   be   uni? or   multicellular. You   will   have   a   chance   to   observe   many   eukaryotic   cells   during  this  semester:  Amoeba,  Lilly,  Whitefish†¦.In   today's   exercise   you   will   take   a   first   look   at   the   similarities   and   differences   between   prokaryotic   and   eukaryotic   cells   as   well   as   the   diversity  within  these  groups. You   should   familiarize   yourselves   with   a   whole   array   of   cellular   structures   and   organelles   you   will   probably   encounter   during   the   course   of   this   exercise. Before   your   scheduled   lab   session,   write   down   the   definition   and   function  for  each  of  the  following  terms:  plasma  (cell)  membrane,  cell  wall,   protoplast,  cytoplasm,  vacuoles,  nucleus,  nucleolus  and  chloroplasts.Eukaryotic  Cells:  Elodea  (plant) 1? Get   a   young   green   Elodea   leaf   from   the   jar. Mount   it   in   a   drop   of   water   on   a   clean   microscope   slide   with   the   convex   side   of   the   leaf   uppermost. Cover  the  preparation  with  a  coverslip. 2? Observe   the   preparation   at   4X,   then   at   10X. If   you   see   brownish   oval   structures   on   the   leaf   surface,   ignore   then. These   are   probably   epiphytic   diatoms. Concentrate  your  attention  on  the  cells  near  the  cent ral  rib  at  the   base  of  the  leaf  and  on  the  marginal  cells  at  the  edge  of  the  leaf. Can  you  distinguish  several  layers  making  up  the  leaf? ____ ? What   is   the   average   length   ______   and   width   ______   of   the   cells   in   micrometres? 17 Lab1  ? Microscopy 3? Focussing  at  40X  locate  the  cell  wall,  the  vacuole,  the  cytoplasm  and  the   numerous  green  chloroplasts. ? What   important   biological   process   takes   place   in   the   chloroplasts? _____________________________________ ? What  pigment  is  responsible  for  their  green  colouration? ________________________________________________ ? What  is  the  shape  of  chloroplasts? ____________________________________________ ? Are  the  chloroplasts  moving? What  sort  of  movement? ____________________________ _____________________ ? The  phenomenon  you  are  observing  is  called  cytoplasmic  streaming   or   cyclosis. What   do   you   think   the   function   of   such   a   process   could   be? ___________________________________________________ 4? You   have   probably   realised   that   the   plasma   membrane   cannot   be   seen   in   plant   cells. It   is   too   thin   to   be   resolved   with   the   compound   microscope.In   order   to   see   the   true   limiting   boundary   of   the   cytoplasm   it   is   necessary   to   treat   the   cells   in   such   a   manner   that   the   plasma   membrane   becomes   withdrawn   away   from   the   rigid   cell   wall. This   can   be   done   by   placing   the   cell   in   a   strong   salt   solution. This   will   cause   water   toà ‚   diffuse   out   of   the   cell   by   osmosis,   thereby   decreasing   the   cell   volume. The   unaffected   cell   wall remains  in  its  original  state. What  can  then  be  seen  is  a  space  between  the   cell  wall  and  the  limiting  boundary  of  the  protoplast  (the  cell  minus  the  cell   wall)  which  thereby  becomes  visible. Remove   your   Elodea   slide   from   the   microscope   stage. Delicately   remove   the   coverslip,   add   one   drop   of   5%   NaCl   solution   then   put   back  the  coverslip  on  your  preparation ? Refocus   at   40x   (don't   forget:   you   must   first   focus   at   4X,   then   10X   and  finally  at  40x). ? Are   the   cells   plasmolyzed? (If   not   wait   a   while   longer). How   do   they   look  like  now? __ ____________________ ? Has  the  cell  wall  been  affected? _________________   ? What   becomes   of   the   large   central   vacuole   during   plasmolysis? ______  _______________________________________________ Take  a  picture  of  a  plasmolyzed  Elodea  cell. How  does  it  compare  to   the  previous  picture? 18 Lab1  ? Microscopy Prokaryotic  Cells:  Lyngbya  (eubacteria:  cyanobacteria)   1. Take   a   close   look   at   the   sample   in   the   jar. Which   colour   would   best   describe  its  appearance? ___________________ 2. Prepare  a  wet  mount  of  fresh  Lyngbya  by  the  following  procedure:   ? With   forceps   or   an   eye   dropper,   put   a   very   small   amount   of   green   matter  on  a  clean  slide ? Add  a  drop  of  water  from  the  jar. ? Carefully   place   a   co verslip   over   it. Make   sure   it   lies   flat   on   the   preparation.Don't   worry   if   there   are   just   a   few   air   bubbles. With   practice,   your   skills   will   improve. However,   if   too   many   air   bubbles   are   present,   your   preparation   risks   to   dry   out   very   quickly   during   viewing,  compromising  your  observations. 3. Starting  with  the  4X  objective,  focus  on  your  preparation. ? Can  you  see  numerous  green  filaments? _______ ? Are  the  filaments  moving? __________ 4. Switch  to  the  10X  then  the  40X  objective  and  focus  using  the  fine  focus   knob  only: ? Do  you  see  the  individual  cells  making  up  each  filament? ________ ? Estimate  the  width  of  one  filament  in  micrometres:_______ What’s  the  filamentà ‚  width  in  millimetres  (mm)? ________ ? REMEMBER:   You   are   working   with   living   cells. Work   quickly   and   keep   your   specimen   wet   at   all   times. Dead,   dry   or   damaged   biological  preparations  are  useless. Returning  the  microscopes  after  use After   completing   all   observations,   turn   and   click   the   low   power   objective   (4X)  on  the  compound  microscope  into  position. Remove  the  slide  from  the  stage  and  return  it  to  its  correct  box. Wipe  the  stages  with  a  clean  paper  towel. Carefully  disconnect  the  camera  from  the  firewire  cable.Make   sure   you   turned   off   the   light   on   each   microscope,   then   unplug   the   power  cord  and  make  a  loose  coil  of  it  around  the  eyepieces. Return  the  microscope  in  the  cupboard. 19 Lab1  ? Microscopy TAs   will   check   that   you   properly   returned   the   microscopes   in   the cupboard   with  the  cord  properly  attached  and  no  slide  present  on  the   stage. You   will   lose  marks  for  this  lab  (and  other  labs)  if  you  don’t  do  so. Evaluation A   short   quiz   on   microscope   components,   specimen   observations   and   measurement  of  objects  will  take  place  at  the  beginning  of  Lab2.Be  on  time,  the  quiz  will  start  at  2:30. References: 1? Metric  system  (see  also  appendix  IV  at  the  end  of  lab  manual):   1  centimetre  cm  =  10? 2  metres  (m) 1  millimetre  mm  =  10? 3  metres 1  micrometre  ? m  =  10? 6  metres 1  nanometre  nm  =  10? 9  metres 2? Size  of   camera  field  of  views  (fov): Table  2:  Fields  of  View:  Olympus  CX41  Compound  Microscope   Objective 4X 10X 40X 100X Camera  field  of  view (width  in  mm) 1. 75 0. 70 0. 175 0. 070 Table  3:  Fields  of  View  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  Olympus  SZ61TR  Dissecting  Microscope   Zoom  Setting 0. 67X 0. 8X 1X